Body odour disgust sensitivity is associated with xenophobia: evidence from nine countries across five continents

2023. Marta Z. Zakrzewska (et al.). Royal Society Open Science 10 (4)

Article

Body odour disgust sensitivity (BODS) reflects a behavioural disposition to avoid pathogens, and it may also involve social attitudes. Among participants in the USA, high levels of BODS were associated with stronger xenophobia towards a fictitious refugee group. To test the generalizability of this finding, we analysed data from nine countries across five continents (N = 6836). Using structural equation modelling, we found support for our pre-registered hypotheses: higher BODS levels were associated with more xenophobic attitudes; this relationship was partially explained by perceived dissimilarities of the refugees' norms regarding hygiene and food preparation, and general attitudes toward immigration. Our results support a theoretical notion of how pathogen avoidance is associated with social attitudes: ‘traditional norms’ often involve behaviours that limit inter-group contact, social mobility and situations that might lead to pathogen exposure. Our results also indicate that the positive relationship between BODS and xenophobia is robust across cultures.

Love and affectionate touch toward romantic partners all over the world

2023. Agnieszka Sorokowska (et al.). Scientific Reports 13

Article

Touch is the primary way people communicate intimacy in romantic relationships, and affectionate touch behaviors such as stroking, hugging and kissing are universally observed in partnerships all over the world. Here, we explored the association of love and affectionate touch behaviors in romantic partnerships in two studies comprising 7880 participants. In the first study, we used a cross-cultural survey conducted in 37 countries to test whether love was universally associated with affectionate touch behaviors. In the second study, using a more fine-tuned touch behavior scale, we tested whether the frequency of affectionate touch behaviors was related to love in romantic partnerships. As hypothesized, love was significantly and positively associated with affectionate touch behaviors in both studies and this result was replicated regardless of the inclusion of potentially relevant factors as controls. Altogether, our data strongly suggest that affectionate touch is a relatively stable characteristic of human romantic relationships that is robustly and reliably related to the degree of reported love between partners.

Motivated errors in the face of facts

2023. Torun Lindholm (et al.).

Conference

Effects of Eyewitnesses’ Primary Language in Investigative Interviews

2023. Raver Gültekin, Torun Lindholm, Charlotte Alm. ICPS 2023 Brussels, 41-41

Conference

We examined whether an eyewitness memory accuracy and susceptibility to suggestions were affected by whether the testimony was given in a native or non-native language. Results showed no effects of language on memory accuracy or suggestibility. Witnesses testifying in a non-native vs. native language were less confident in their memory.

Motivated reasoning in the face of clear evidence

2023. Torun Lindholm, Ola Svenson, Freja Isohanni.

Conference

Abstract for the symposium "Psychological drivers of misinformation and misperception"

We have increasingly sophisticated ways of acquiring and communicating knowledge, but at the same time, efforts to communicate this knowledge often encounter resistance. The aim of the symposium is to understand and characterize the role of drivers such as trust, conformity, ideology and information complexity in motivated reasoning and knowledge resistance.

Predicting Loyalty: Examining the Role of Social Identity and Leadership in an Extreme Operational Environment-A Swedish Case

2023. Torbjörn Engelkes, Magnus Sverke, Torun Lindholm. Armed forces and society

Article

Military organizations often emphasize the importance of loyalty. It has been suggested that loyalty enhances motivation to take great risks and strive to accomplish a mission. However, research into what influences loyalty among military personnel is scarce. Hence, the aim of this study was to examine how leadership and social identity fusion relate to loyalty, using data from a sample consisting of a Swedish military unit on a United Nation mission (N = 152) in Mali. Hierarchical multiple regression results generally showed that social identity fusion and leadership were positively related to a willingness to show loyalty to the closest workgroup, one’s own unit, and the mission. The findings indicate that leadership and high levels of social identity fusion may influence the willingness to be loyal to organizational goals. The practical implication of this study is increased knowledge about the importance of leadership and social identity in developing relevant loyalties.

Motivated Numeracy: The Role of Stimulus Ambiguity

2023. Torun Lindholm, Freja Isohanni, Ola Svenson. ICPS 2023 Brussels, 25-25

Conference

People display motivational biases when interpreting numerical information on politically polarized topics. We investigated how disambiguating informationof a numerical problem affected biased reasoning. Results showed that participants’ initial conclusions were biased in line with their ideology, but that biases dropped significantly with the simplified version of the problem.

Vocal characteristics of accuracy in eyewitness testimony

2023. Philip U. Gustafsson, Petri Laukka, Torun Lindholm. Speech Communication 146, 82-92

Article

In two studies, we examined if correct and incorrect testimony statements were produced with vocally distinct characteristics. Participants watched a staged crime film and were interviewed as eyewitnesses. Witness responses were recorded and then analysed along 16 vocal dimensions. Results from Study 1 showed six vocal characteristics of accuracy, which included dimensions of frequency, energy, spectral balance and temporality. Study 2 attempted to replicate Study 1, and also examined effects of emotion on the vocal characteristic-accuracy relationship. Although the results from Study 1 were not directly replicated in Study 2, a mega-analysis of the two datasets showed four distinct vocal characteristics of accuracy; correct responses were uttered with a higher pitch (F0 [M]), greater energy in the first formant region (F1 [amp]), higher speech rate (VoicedSegPerSec) and shorter pauses (UnvoicedSegM). Taken together, this study advances previous knowledge by showing that accuracy is not only indicated by what we say, but also by how we say it.

Modernization, collectivism, and gender equality predict love experiences in 45 countries

2023. Piotr Sorokowski (et al.). Scientific Reports 13 (1)

Article

Recent cross-cultural and neuro-hormonal investigations have suggested that love is a near universal phenomenon that has a biological background. Therefore, the remaining important question is not whether love exists worldwide but which cultural, social, or environmental factors influence experiences and expressions of love. In the present study, we explored whether countries’ modernization indexes are related to love experiences measured by three subscales (passion, intimacy, commitment) of the Triangular Love Scale. Analyzing data from 9474 individuals from 45 countries, we tested for relationships with country-level predictors, namely, modernization proxies (i.e., Human Development Index, World Modernization Index, Gender Inequality Index), collectivism, and average annual temperatures. We found that mean levels of love (especially intimacy) were higher in countries with higher modernization proxies, collectivism, and average annual temperatures. In conclusion, our results grant some support to the hypothesis that modernization processes might influence love experiences.

Who endorses group-based violence?

2023. Joanna Lindström (et al.). Group Processes & Intergroup Relations

Article

Collective action is often equated with progressive politics, but are there aspects of group mobilisations that generalise across contexts? We examine general social and personality psychological factors behind endorsement of group-based violence across different types of violent group mobilisation. Specifically, we focus on the endorsement of group-based violence amongst supporters of the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement (N = 394), an immigration-critical group (N = 252), and soccer supporters (N = 445). Across three preregistered studies, we tested an integrative model including personality and social psychological factors. Several effects were consistent across all three contexts, with group-based relative deprivation positively, and honesty-humility negatively, predicting support for violence. Further, amongst BLM supporters and the immigration-critical group, emotionality negatively predicted support for violence, violent intentions, and self-reported aggression/violence. Overall, our results suggest that individuals who endorse violence in different contexts have some psychological factors in common.

The Voice of Eyewitness Accuracy

2023. Philip U. Gustafsson, Petri Laukka, Torun Lindholm. ICPS 2023 Brussels, 41-41

Conference

In two studies, we examined vocal characteristics of accuracy. Participants watched a staged-crime film and were interviewed as eyewitnesses. A mega- analysis showed that correct responses were uttered with 1) a higher pitch, 2) greater energy in the first formant region, 3) higher speech rate and 4) shorter pauses.

Gender and arson: psychosocial, psychological, and somatic offender characteristics at the time of the crime

2023. Victoria Andrén (et al.). Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 34 (1), 113-130

Article

Deliberate fire-setting, such as the crime of arson, can have devastating, even lethal, consequences. This study compared factors at the time of arson by female and male offenders in Sweden between 2000–2010. The women (n = 100), and men (n = 100) included in this study were randomly chosen from among all individuals who had been convicted for arson during this period and who underwent forensic psychiatric investigations. Information regarding psychiatric and somatic characteristics, their psychosocial situation, and whether they were in contact with health or social services before the arsons were examined. The results showed that both women and men have complex psychiatric and somatic characteristics, as well as psychosocial situations. Women showed more self-destructive behaviour, lower Global Assessment of Functioning scores, and had been in contact with psychiatric health services to a greater extent than men. More women than men had children. These findings suggest that specific actions may be needed for preventing and treating women compared with men at risk for committing arson.

Trusting the Facts: The Role of Framing, News Media as a (Trusted) Source, and Opinion Resonance for Perceived Truth in Statistical Statements

2022. Elina Lindgren (et al.). Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly

Article

Scholars have raised concerns that on many issues, citizens are reluctant to trust factual evidence and statistics. One factor that has been shown to impact the perceived truth in statistics is how they are presented, where negatively framed statistics are perceived as truer than positive. This study explores when this bias applies and not. Results from a survey experiment confirm the presence of a negativity bias in truth perceptions, but also that effects are heterogeneous and moderated by, in particular, the recipients’ preexisting opinions. These findings provide valuable information to public actors responsible for disseminating factual information to diverse publics.

Eyewitness accuracy and retrieval effort: Effects of time and repetition

2022. Philip U. Gustafsson, Torun Lindholm, Fredrik U. Jönsson. PLOS ONE 17 (9)

Article

An important task for the law enforcement is to assess the accuracy of eyewitness testimonies. Recent research show that indicators of effortful memory retrieval, such as pausing and hedging (e.g. “I think”, “maybe”), are more common in incorrect recall. However, a limitation in these studies is that participants are interviewed shortly after witnessing an event, as opposed to after greater retention intervals. We set out to mitigate this shortcoming by investigating the retrieval effort-accuracy relationship over time. In this study, participants watched a staged crime and were interviewed directly afterwards, and two weeks later. Half the participants also carried out a repetition task during the two-week retention interval. Results showed that the retrieval-effort cues Delays and Hedges predicted accuracy at both sessions, including after repetition. We also measured confidence, and found that confidence also predicted accuracy over time, although repetition led to increased confidence for incorrect memories. Moreover, retrieval-effort cues partially mediated between accuracy and confidence.

Cognitive bias and attitude distortion of a priority decision

2022. Ola Svenson (et al.). Cognitive Processing 23 (3), 379-391

Article

The resource saving bias is a cognitive bias describing how resource savings from improvements of high-productivity units are overestimated compared to improvements of less productive units. Motivational reasoning describes how attitudes, here towards private/public health care, distort decisions based on numerical facts. Participants made a choice between two productivity increase options with the goal of saving doctor resources. The options described productivity increases in low-/high-productivity private/public emergency rooms. Jointly, the biases produced 78% incorrect decisions. The cognitive bias was stronger than the motivational bias. Verbal justifications of the decisions revealed elaborations of the problem beyond the information provided, biased integration of quantitative information, change of goal of decision, and motivational attitude biases. Most (83%) of the incorrect decisions were based on (incorrect) mathematical justifications illustrating the resource saving bias. Participants who had better scores on a cognitive test made poorer decisions. Women who gave qualitative justifications to a greater extent than men made more correct decision. After a first decision, participants were informed about the correct decision with a mathematical explanation. Only 6.3% of the participants corrected their decisions after information illustrating facts resistance. This could be explained by psychological sunk cost and coherence theories. Those who made the wrong choice remembered the facts of the problem better than those who made a correct choice.

In the State We Trust? Attachment-Related Avoidance Is Related to Lower Trust, Both in Other People and in Welfare State Institutions

2022. Joel Gruneau Brulin, Torun Lindholm, Pehr Granqvist. The Journal of Social and Political Psychology 10 (1), 158-172

Article

Social and political trust are crucial for societal well-being and are linked to lower levels of corruption as well as to the size of the welfare state. Interpersonal trust is shaped through attachment-related experiences in close interpersonal relationships. However, previous research has not linked these two strands of research, yielding an important knowledge gap about the potential implications of attachment for social and political trust. Therefore, we investigated whether attachment orientations are related to both social trust and trust in the welfare state. Data were collected in two countries with different organization and size of the welfare state, the United States (n = 284) and Sweden (n = 280). In both countries, attachment-related avoidance (but not anxiety) was negatively related both to social trust and trust in the welfare state, even after controlling for pertinent confounds. Our findings also suggested that social trust may mediate the link between avoidance and trust in the welfare state. These results cohere with an assumption that people’s attachment-related working models may extend to their models of the world at large. We conclude that interpersonal parameters should be considered to fully understand the development of trust in political institutions.

Body odor disgust sensitivity is associated with xenophobia: Evidence from 9 countries

Marta Zakrzewska (et al.).

Body odor disgust sensitivity (BODS) reflects a behavioral disposition to avoid pathogens, and it may also involve social attitudes. Among participants in the USA, high levels of BODS were associated with stronger xenophobia towards a fictitious refugee group. To test the generalizability of this finding, we analyzed data from 9 countries across five continents (N = 6836). Using structural equation modeling, we found support for our preregistered hypotheses: higher BODS levels were associated with more xenophobic attitudes; this relationship was partially explained by perceived dissimilarities of the refugees’ norms regarding hygiene and food preparation, and general attitudes toward immigration. Our results support a theoretical notion of how pathogen avoidance is associated with social attitudes: “traditional norms” often involve behaviors that limit inter-group contact, social mobility and situations that might lead to pathogen exposure. Our results also indicate that the positive relationship between BODS and xenophobia is robust across cultures.

Overcoming Knowledge Resistance: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies

2022. Michael Ingre, Torun Lindholm, Jesper Strömbäck. Knowledge Resistance in High-Choice Information Environments, 254-280

Chapter

Research shows that our reasoning often is motivated by desires to view the world as we want it to be, and that such motivated reasoning is an important factor behind knowledge resistance. In the current chapter, we review research examining cures for knowledge resistance, specifically for the rebuttal of available facts based on the best evidence. The review included 26 studies reported in 17 papers. The results indicate that there are techniques that to some extent can reduce knowledge resistance. A consistent finding was that people are more open to fact messages framed to be compatible with their worldview or expressed in gain rather than loss terms. Prompting a focus on messages’ explanatory power also decreases the rejection of facts that are in opposition with an individual's motivations. Other techniques show promising results but need to be explored further. In sum, the results suggest a set of strategies to counter biased reasoning, some of which should be possible to use in applied communication contexts. However, further experimental research on this topic using is warranted to replicate and extend current findings.

Introduction: Toward Understanding Knowledge Resistance in High-Choice Information Environments

2022. Jesper Strömbäck (et al.). Knowledge Resistance in High-Choice Information Environments, 1-28

Chapter

This chapter introduces the themes of the book and provides an overview of key arguments and of the chapters in the book. Among other things, the chapter discusses the problem of knowledge resistance, outlines the purpose of the book, and provides a broad framework toward understanding knowledge resistance and its antecedents. This framework includes the transition from low- to high-choice media environments, an increase in the prevalence of mis- and disinformation, biased information processing, and factual belief polarization, and the linkage between misperceptions and knowledge resistance. Finally, it briefly introduces and discusses each of the chapters in the book.

Knowledge Resistance in High-Choice Information Environments

2022. Jesper Strömbäck (et al.).

Book

This book offers a truly interdisciplinary exploration of our patterns of engagement with politics, news, and information in current high-choice information environments. Putting forth the notion that high-choice information environments may contribute to increasing misperceptions and knowledge resistance rather than greater public knowledge, the book offers insights into the processes that influence the supply of misinformation and factors influencing how and why people expose themselves to and process information that may support or contradict their beliefs and attitudes.

A team of authors from across a range of disciplines address the phenomena of knowledge resistance and its causes and consequences at the macro- as well as the micro-level. The chapters take a philosophical look at the notion of knowledge resistance, before moving on to discuss issues such as misinformation and fake news, psychological mechanisms such as motivated reasoning in processes of selective exposure and attention, how people respond to evidence and fact-checking, the role of political partisanship, political polarization over factual beliefs, and how knowledge resistance might be counteracted.

This book will have a broad appeal to scholars and students interested in knowledge resistance, primarily within philosophy, psychology, media and communication, and political science, as well as journalists and policymakers.

A Review of the Effects of Valenced Odors on Face Perception and Evaluation

2021. Elmeri Syrjänen (et al.). i-Perception 12 (2), 1-19

Article

How do valenced odors affect the perception and evaluation of facial expressions? We reviewed 25 studies published from 1989 to 2020 on cross-modal behavioral effects of odors on the perception of faces. The results indicate that odors may influence facial evaluations and classifications in several ways. Faces are rated as more arousing during simultaneous odor exposure, and the rated valence of faces is affected in the direction of the odor valence. For facial classification tasks, in general, valenced odors, whether pleasant or unpleasant, decrease facial emotion classification speed. The evidence for valence congruency effects was inconsistent. Some studies found that exposure to a valenced odor facilitates the processing of a similarly valenced facial expression. The results for facial evaluation were mirrored in classical conditioning studies, as faces conditioned with valenced odors were rated in the direction of the odor valence. However, the evidence of odor effects was inconsistent when the task was to classify faces. Furthermore, using a z-curve analysis, we found clear evidence for publication bias. Our recommendations for future research include greater consideration of individual differences in sensation and cognition, individual differences (e.g., differences in odor sensitivity related to age, gender, or culture), establishing standardized experimental assessments and stimuli, larger study samples, and embracing open research practices.

Affective Interpersonal Touch in Close Relationships

2021. Agnieszka Sorokowska (et al.). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

Article

Interpersonal touch behavior differs across cultures, yet no study to date has systematically tested for cultural variation in affective touch, nor examined the factors that might account for this variability. Here, over 14,000 individuals from 45 countries were asked whether they embraced, stroked, kissed, or hugged their partner, friends, and youngest child during the week preceding the study. We then examined a range of hypothesized individual-level factors (sex, age, parasitic history, conservatism, religiosity, and preferred interpersonal distance) and cultural-level factors (regional temperature, parasite stress, regional conservatism, collectivism, and religiosity) in predicting these affective-touching behaviors. Our results indicate that affective touch was most prevalent in relationships with partners and children, and its diversity was relatively higher in warmer, less conservative, and religious countries, and among younger, female, and liberal people. This research allows for a broad and integrated view of the bases of cross-cultural variability in affective touch.

Judging the accuracy of eyewitness testimonies using retrieval effort cues

2021. Philip U. Gustafsson, Torun Lindholm, Fredrik U. Jönsson. Applied Cognitive Psychology 35 (5), 1224-1235

Article

Recent research has shown that incorrect statements in eyewitness testimonies contain more cues to effortful memory retrieval than correct statements. In two experiments, we attempted to improve judgments of testimony accuracy by informing participants about these effort cues. Participants read eyewitness testimony transcripts and judged statement accuracy. Performance was above chance in both experiments, but there was only a significant effect of the effort-cue instruction in Experiment 2. In Experiment 1, we also compared judgment accuracy between police detectives, police students and laypersons, and found no significant difference, in contrast to previous studies. Moreover, the current study corroborates previous findings that (a) judging testimony accuracy is a difficult task and (b) people spontaneously rely on effort cues to some extent when judging accuracy. However, a complete reliance on effort cues showed substantially better performance than relying on one's own judgments skills at best, and offered equal performance at worst.

Sex differences in human mate preferences vary across sex ratios

2021. Kathryn V. Walter (et al.). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Biological Sciences 288 (1955)

Article

A wide range of literature connects sex ratio and mating behaviours in non-human animals. However, research examining sex ratio and human mating is limited in scope. Prior work has examined the relationship between sex ratio and desire for short-term, uncommitted mating as well as outcomes such as marriage and divorce rates. Less empirical attention has been directed towards the relationship between sex ratio and mate preferences, despite the importance of mate preferences in the human mating literature. To address this gap, we examined sex ratio's relationship to the variation in preferences for attractiveness, resources, kindness, intelligence and health in a long-term mate across 45 countries (n = 14 487). We predicted that mate preferences would vary according to relative power of choice on the mating market, with increased power derived from having relatively few competitors and numerous potential mates. We found that each sex tended to report more demanding preferences for attractiveness and resources where the opposite sex was abundant, compared to where the opposite sex was scarce. This pattern dovetails with those found for mating strategies in humans and mate preferences across species, highlighting the importance of sex ratio for understanding variation in human mate preferences.

Evaluating the Quality of Investigative Interviews Conducted After the Completion of a Training Program

2021. Ann-Christin Cederborg (et al.). Investigative Interviewing Research & Practice (II-RP) 11 (1), 40-52

Article

A previous study conducted in Sweden showed that criminal investigators who participated in a 6‐month course, including a systematic and extensive training program based on a flexible protocol and during which they received extended supervision, were able to reduce their use of option‐posing and suggestive questions and used more open‐ended questions at the end of the training. However, that study did not determine whether the participants continued to employ preferred interview techniques in the months after the course concluded. In the present study, therefore, we evaluated interviews conducted by 66 Swedish criminal investigators who were given the same training as the previous participants. They attended four different courses between the autumn term of 2013 and the spring term of 2015.The present study specifically focused on changes in interview quality from before the course started, to the final interview at the end of the course and interviews subsequently conducted four months after the course was completed. The coding distinguished between open‐questions (invitations, directives) and risky questions (option‐posing and suggestive prompts). We found that, over time, the participants made increased use of recommended types of questions (invitations and directive questions) and reduced use of risky question types (option‐posing and suggestive questions). This suggests that the training program enhanced the investigators’ interview behavior and that they maintained their good practices after completing the course. This is an important finding because inappropriate interviewing can undermine the legal rights of both alleged victims and suspects.

Universality of the Triangular Theory of Love

2021. Piotr Sorokowski (et al.). Journal of Sex Research 58 (1), 106-115

Article

The Triangular Theory of Love (measured with Sternberg's Triangular Love Scale - STLS) is a prominent theoretical concept in empirical research on love. To expand the culturally homogeneous body of previous psychometric research regarding the STLS, we conducted a large-scale cross-cultural study with the use of this scale. In total, we examined more than 11,000 respondents, but as a result of applied exclusion criteria, the final analyses were based on a sample of 7332 participants from 25 countries (from all inhabited continents). We tested configural invariance, metric invariance, and scalar invariance, all of which confirmed the cultural universality of the theoretical construct of love analyzed in our study. We also observed that levels of love components differ depending on relationship duration, following the dynamics suggested in the Triangular Theory of Love. Supplementary files with all our data, including results on love intensity across different countries along with STLS versions adapted in a few dozen languages, will further enable more extensive research on the Triangular Theory of Love.

Vi och dom

2021. Torun Lindholm Öjmyr.

Book

In the State we Trust? Attachment-Related Avoidance is Related to Lower Trust, Both in Other People and in Welfare State Institutions

Joel Gruneau Brulin, Torun Lindholm, Pehr Granqvist.

Without a mask

2020. Ola Svenson (et al.). Judgment and decision making 15 (6), 881-888

Article

In order to minimize the risk of infection during the Covid-19 pandemic, people are recommended to keep interpersonal distance (e.g., 1 m, 2 m, 6 feet), wash their hands frequently, limit social contacts and sometimes to wear a face mask. We investigated how people judge the protective effect of interpersonal distance against the Corona virus. The REM model, based on earlier empirical studies, describes how a person’s virus exposure decreases with the square of the distance to another person emitting a virus in a face to face situation. In a comparison with model predictions, most participants underestimated the protective effect of moving further away from another person. Correspondingly, most participants were not aware of how much their exposure would increase if they moved closer to the other person. Spectral analysis of judgments showed that a linear ratio model with the independent variable = (initial distance)/(distance to which a person moves) was the most frequently used judgment rule. It leads to insensitivity to change in exposure compared with the REM model. The present study indicated a need for information about the effects of keeping interpersonal distance and about the importance of virus carrying aerosols in environments with insufficient air ventilation. Longer conversations emitting aerosols in a closed environment may lead to ambient concentrations of aerosols in the air that no distance can compensate for. The results of the study are important for risk communications in countries where people do not wear a mask and when authorities consider removal of a recommendation or a requirement to wear a face mask.

A General Model of Dissonance Reduction

2020. Sebastian Cancino-Montecinos, Fredrik Björklund, Torun Lindholm. Frontiers in Psychology 11

Article

Cognitive dissonance has been studied for more than 60 years and many insightful findings have come from this research. However, some important theoretical and methodological issues are yet to be resolved, particularly regarding dissonance reduction. In this paper, we place dissonance theory in the larger framework of appraisal theories of emotion, emotion regulation, and coping. The basic premise of dissonance theory is that people experience negative affect (to varying degrees) following the detection of cognitive conflict. The individual will be motivated to alleviate these emotional reactions and could do so by reducing dissonance in some manner. We argue that detection of dissonance will follow the same principles as when people interpret any other stimuli as emotionally significant. Thus, appraisal theory of emotion, which argues that emotions are generated via the cognitive evaluation of surrounding stimuli, should be applicable to the dissonance-detection process. In short, we argue that dissonance-reduction strategies (attitude change, trivialization, denial of responsibility, etc.) can be understood as emotion-regulation strategies. We further argue that this perspective contributes to reconciling fragmented (and sometimes contrary) viewpoints present in the literature on dissonance reduction. In addition to proposing the general model of dissonance reduction, we illustrate at the hand of empirical data how research on dissonance reduction can be performed without relying on experimental paradigms that focus on a specific reduction strategy.

News media trust and its impact on media use

2020. Jesper Strömbäck (et al.). Annals of the International Communication Association 44 (2), 139-156

Article

In contemporary high-choice media environments, the issue of media trust and its impact on people's media use has taken on new importance. At the same time, the extent to which people trust the news media and how much it matters for their use of different types of media is not clear. To lay the groundwork for future research, in this article we offer a focused review of (a) how news media trust has been conceptualized and operationalized in previous research and (b) research on the extent to which news media trust influences media use, and (c) offer a theoretically derived framework for future research on news media trust and its influence on media use.

An Overprotective Nose? Implicit Bias Is Positively Related to Individual Differences in Body Odor Disgust Sensitivity

2020. Marta Zuzanna Zakrzewska (et al.). Frontiers in Psychology 11

Article

Body odors are universal elicitors of disgust, a core emotion that plays a key role in the behavioral immune system (BIS) - a set of psychological functions working to avoid disease. Recent studies showed that body odor disgust sensitivity (BODS) is associated with explicit xenophobia and authoritarianism. In the current experimental pre-registered study (), we investigated the association between olfactory pathogen cues, BODS and implicit bias toward an outgroup (tested by an implicit association test). Results show that BODS is positively related to implicit bias toward an outgroup, suggesting that social attitudes may be linked to basic chemosensory processes. These attitudes were not influenced by background odors. Additionally, BODS was related to social, but not economic conservatism. This study extends the BIS framework to an experimental context by focusing on the role of disgust and body odors in shaping implicit bias.

Sex Differences in Mate Preferences Across 45 Countries

2020. Kathryn Walter (et al.). Psychological Science 31 (4), 408-423

Article

Considerable research has examined human mate preferences across cultures, finding universal sex differences in preferences for attractiveness and resources as well as sources of systematic cultural variation. Two competing perspectives-an evolutionary psychological perspective and a biosocial role perspective-offer alternative explanations for these findings. However, the original data on which each perspective relies are decades old, and the literature is fraught with conflicting methods, analyses, results, and conclusions. Using a new 45-country sample (N = 14,399), we attempted to replicate classic studies and test both the evolutionary and biosocial role perspectives. Support for universal sex differences in preferences remains robust: Men, more than women, prefer attractive, young mates, and women, more than men, prefer older mates with financial prospects. Cross-culturally, both sexes have mates closer to their own ages as gender equality increases. Beyond age of partner, neither pathogen prevalence nor gender equality robustly predicted sex differences or preferences across countries.

Suicide Terrorism

2020. Joanna Lindström, Torun Lindholm. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science

Chapter

Suicide terrorism, which is usually tied to a non-state organization, is the act of sacrificing one’s life in an effort to harm, damage, or destroy members of an out-group, for political and social objectives.

Memory accuracy, suggestibility and credibility in investigative interviews with native and non-native eyewitnesses

2023. Arman Raver (et al.). Frontiers in Psychology 14

Article

Legal practitioners sometimes obtain eyewitness testimonies from non-native language speakers, yet few studies examine the effects of language in investigative interviews. Here, we investigate how testifying in a non-native vs. native language affects memory accuracy, susceptibility to suggestions, and witnesses perceived credibility. After viewing a mock-crime film, participants in Study 1 (N = 121) testified through (1) free recall, (2) cued recall and (3) the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales adapted to the crime scenario used in the present study either in their native (Swedish) or a non-native (English) language. They also rated their confidence in their memories, self-perceived credibility and cognitive effort. Native and non-native witnesses did not differ in memory accuracy, susceptibility to suggestions, self-rated credibility or cognitive effort. Non-native (vs. native) speakers did however report lower confidence in their memories. In Study 2, another group of participants (N = 202) were presented with the testimonies from Study 1, and judged witnesses' credibility. Non-native witnesses were judged as less credible than native speakers. Thus, while the lower confidence exhibited by non-native eyewitnesses did not correspond to their actual memory accuracy, it influenced observers' judgments of their performance. The results provide important knowledge for legal practices when evaluating the reliability of testimonies from non-native vs. native speaking eyewitnesses.

Reasons for Facebook Usage

2020. Marta Kowal (et al.). Frontiers in Psychology 11

Article

Introduction: Seventy-nine percent of internet users use Facebook, and on average they access Facebook eight times a day (Greenwood et al., 2016). To put these numbers into perspective, according to Clement (2019), around 30% of the world's population uses this Online Social Network (OSN) site.

Despite the constantly growing body of academic research on Facebook (Chou et al., 2009; Back et al., 2010; Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010; McAndrew and Jeong, 2012; Wilson et al., 2012; Krasnova et al., 2017), there remains limited research regarding the motivation behind Facebook use across different cultures. Our main goal was to collect data from a large cross-cultural sample of Facebook users to examine the roles of sex, age, and, most importantly, cultural differences underlying Facebook use.

Contrasting Computational Models of Mate Preference Integration Across 45 Countries

2019. Daniel Conroy-Beam (et al.). Scientific Reports 9

Article

Humans express a wide array of ideal mate preferences. Around the world, people desire romantic partners who are intelligent, healthy, kind, physically attractive, wealthy, and more. In order for these ideal preferences to guide the choice of actual romantic partners, human mating psychology must possess a means to integrate information across these many preference dimensions into summaries of the overall mate value of their potential mates. Here we explore the computational design of this mate preference integration process using a large sample of n = 14,487 people from 45 countries around the world. We combine this large cross-cultural sample with agent-based models to compare eight hypothesized models of human mating markets. Across cultures, people higher in mate value appear to experience greater power of choice on the mating market in that they set higher ideal standards, better fulfill their preferences in choice, and pair with higher mate value partners. Furthermore, we find that this cross-culturally universal pattern of mate choice is most consistent with a Euclidean model of mate preference integration.

Assortative mating and the evolution of desirability covariation

2019. Daniel Conroy-Beam (et al.). Evolution and human behavior 40 (5), 479-491

Article

Mate choice lies dose to differential reproduction, the engine of evolution. Patterns of mate choice consequently have power to direct the course of evolution. Here we provide evidence suggesting one pattern of human mate choice-the tendency for mates to be similar in overall desirability-caused the evolution of a structure of correlations that we call the d factor. We use agent-based models to demonstrate that assortative mating causes the evolution of a positive manifold of desirability, d, such that an individual who is desirable as a mate along any one dimension tends to be desirable across all other dimensions. Further, we use a large cross-cultural sample with n = 14,478 from 45 countries around the world to show that this d-factor emerges in human samples, is a cross-cultural universal, and is patterned in a way consistent with an evolutionary history of assortative mating. Our results suggest that assortative mating can explain the evolution of a broad structure of human trait covariation.

Language and eyewitness suggestibility

2019. Charlotte Alm, Nora Helmy Rehnberg, Torun Lindholm. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling 16 (3), 201-212

Article

During forensic interviews, eyewitnesses are to retrieve correct information from memory. Cognitive load should be high, leading to risks of giving in to suggestive questions and difficulties in memory retrieval generally. Testifying in a non-native vs. native language may require even more cognitive effort due to the need to inhibit the interference of the native language. Such witnesses may also be more motivated to appear credible because they often belong to ethnic outgroups relative to forensic professionals, risking more scepticism. In this study, Swedish participants (N = 51) reported their memory of a simulated crime event either in English (non-native language) or in Swedish (native language) and were tested for suggestibility and accuracy. Results showed that English-speaking witnesses yielded to more suggestive questions, perceived themselves as less credible but were equally accurate. Results suggest that testifying in a non-native language is taxing cognitive resources, in turn increasing suggestibility and suboptimal memory search.

Body odor disgust sensitivity is associated with prejudice towards a fictive group of immigrants

2019. Marta Zakrzewska (et al.). Physiology and Behavior 201, 221-227

Article

Why are certain individuals persistent in opposing immigration? The behavioral immune system framework implies that a psychological mechanism, which adapted to detect and avoid pathogen threats, is also reflected in contemporary social attitudes. Moreover, prejudice towards outgroups might be partially driven by implicit pathogen concerns related to the perceived dissimilarity with these groups' hygiene and food preparation practices. Disgust, a universal core emotion supposedly evolved to avoid pathogen threats, as well as olfaction, both play a pivotal role in evoking disgust. In an online study (N = 800), we investigated whether individual differences in body odor disgust sensitivity (BODS) correlate with negative attitudes towards a fictive refugee group. The data analysis plan and hypotheses were preregistered. Results show that body odor disgust sensitivity is associated with xenophobia: BODS was positively associated with negative attitudes towards the fictive group. This relationship was partially mediated by perceived dissimilarities of the group in terms of hygiene and food preparation. Our finding suggests prejudice might be rooted in sensory mechanisms.

Body Odor Disgust Sensitivity Predicts Moral Harshness Toward Moral Violations of Purity

2019. Marco Tullio Liuzza (et al.). Frontiers in Psychology 10

Article

Detecting pathogen threats and avoiding disease is fundamental to human survival. The behavioral immune system (BIS) framework outlines a set of psychological functions that may have evolved for this purpose. Disgust is a core emotion that plays a pivotal role in the BIS, as it activates the behavioral avoidance motives that prevent people from being in contact with pathogens. To date, there has been little agreement on how disgust sensitivity might underlie moral judgments. Here, we investigated moral violations of “purity” (assumed to elicit disgust) and violations of “harm” (assumed to elicit anger). We hypothesized that individual differences in BIS-related traits would be associated with greater disgust (vs. anger) reactivity to, and greater condemnation of Purity (vs. Harm) violations. The study was pre-registered (https://osf.io/57nm8/). Participants (N = 632) rated scenarios concerning moral wrongness or inappropriateness and regarding disgust and anger. To measure individual differences in the activation of the BIS, we used our recently developed Body Odor Disgust Scale (BODS), a BIS-related trait measure that assesses individual differences in feeling disgusted by body odors. In line with our predictions, we found that scores on the BODS relate more strongly to affective reactions to Purity, as compared to Harm, violations. In addition, BODS relates more strongly to Moral condemnation than to perceived Inappropriateness of an action, and to the condemnation of Purity violations as compared to Harm violations. These results suggest that the BIS is involved in moral judgment, although to some extent this role seems to be specific for violations of “moral purity,” a response that might be rooted in disease avoidance. Data and scripts to analyze the data are available on the Open Science Framework (OSF) repository: https://osf.io/tk4x5/. Planned analyses are available at https://osf.io/x6g3u/.

Effort Cues Predict Eyewitness Accuracy

2019. Torun Lindholm, Fredrik Jönsson, Marco Tullio Liuzza.

Conference

We investigate whether retrieval effort cues are related to eyewitness accuracy, and the relative role of effort cues and witnesses’ confidence in predicting memory. The results demonstrate that verbal and paraverbal retrieval effort cues are strongly related to witnesses’ accuracy. Moreover, subjective confidence in memory rests on these cues.

Effort in Memory Retrieval Predicts Accuracy in Eyewitness Testimonies

2019. Philip Gustafsson, Torun Lindholm, Fredrik U. Jönsson.

Conference

Do sincere eyewitness testimonies contain objective markers of accuracy? We show that expressions of effort in memory retrieval predict eyewitness accuracy. Incorrect memories are recalled with greater effort than correct memories.

Reconsidering the Role of Procedures for Decision Acceptance

2019. Peter Esaiasson (et al.). British Journal of Political Science 49 (1), 291-314

Article

Procedural fairness theory posits that the way in which authoritative decisions are made strongly impacts people's willingness to accept them. This article challenges this claim by contending that democratic governments can achieve little in terms of acceptance of policy decisions by the procedural means at their disposal. Instead, outcome favorability is the dominant determinant of decision acceptance. The article explicates that while central parts of procedural fairness theory are true, outcome favorability is still overwhelmingly the strongest determinant of individuals' willingness to accept authoritative decisions. It improves on previous research by locating all key variables into one causal model and testing this model using appropriate data. Findings from a large number of experiments (both vignette and field) reproduce the expected relationships from previous research and support the additional predictions.

The Moderating Role of Body Odor Disgust Sensitivity in the Affective and Moral Reactivity to Purity Violations

2019. Marco Tullio Liuzza (et al.).

Conference

In this preregistered study, we investigated how different types of moral violations elicit disgust vs. anger, and the role of disgust sensitivity in responding to moral violations. Our results show that purity violations primarily elicit disgust reactions, and individual differences in body odor disgust sensitivity moderates reactions to purity violations.

Men’s and Women’s Self-Presentational Tactics Lead to Gender Biases in Manager Selection

2019. Torun Lindholm (et al.).

Conference

We examined how men’s and women’s self-presentational choices influenced perceived suitability for a senior position. We confronted applicants to job interview questions preferred by men or women. Regardless of their gender, applicants received better evaluations when they received questions initially selected by men than questions initially selected by women.

Predicting Accuracy in Eyewitness Testimonies With Memory Retrieval Effort and Confidence

2019. Philip U. Gustafsson, Torun Lindholm, Fredrik U. Jönsson. Frontiers in Psychology 10

Article

Evaluating eyewitness testimonies has proven a difficult task. Recent research, however, suggests that incorrect memories are more effortful to retrieve than correct memories, and confidence in a memory is based on retrieval effort. We aimed to replicate and extend these findings, adding retrieval latency as a predictor of memory accuracy. Participants watched a film sequence with a staged crime and were interviewed about its content. We then analyzed retrieval effort cues in witness responses. Results showed that incorrect memories included more “effort cues” than correct memories. While correct responses were produced faster than incorrect responses, delays in responses proved a better predictor of accuracy than response latency. Furthermore, participants were more confident in correct than incorrect responses, and the effort cues partially mediated this confidence-accuracy relation. In sum, the results support previous findings of a relationship between memory accuracy and objectively verifiable cues to retrieval effort.

'He was...uhm...bald'

2019. Philip Gustafsson, Torun Lindholm, Fredrik Jönsson. Book of Abstracts, 327-327

Conference

Evaluating eyewitness testimonies has proven a difficult task. We investigated if incorrect memories are more effortful to retrieve than correct memories. Participants watched a simulated crime and were interviewed as eyewitnesses. We then analysed retrieval effort cues in witness responses. Results showed that incorrect memories included more “effort cues” than correct memories, and also partially mediated the relationship between confidence and accuracy.

Attachment and Political Institutions – Attachment Style Predicts Lower Levels of Both Social and Institutional Trust

2019. Gruneau Brulin Joel, Lindholm Torun, Granqvist Pehr.

Conference

Effort in Memory Retrieval Predicts Accuracy in Eyewitness Testimonies

2019. Philip Gustafsson, Torun Lindholm, Fredrik Jönsson.

Conference

Do sincere eyewitness testimonies contain objective markers of accuracy? Despite the importance of evaluating the accuracy of verbal eyewitness testimonies, the evidence for objective measures are scarce, and current accuracy measures unsatisfactory. We demonstrate that expressed effort during memory retrieval can predict accuracy in honest eyewitnesses. Incorrect memories are recalled with greater effort (e.g. more delays and disfluencies) than correct memories.

Contrasting Computational Models of Mate Preference Integration Across 45 Countries

2019. Daniel Conroy-Beam (et al.). Scientific Reports 9

Article

Humans express a wide array of ideal mate preferences. Around the world, people desire romantic partners who are intelligent, healthy, kind, physically attractive, wealthy, and more. In order for these ideal preferences to guide the choice of actual romantic partners, human mating psychology must possess a means to integrate information across these many preference dimensions into summaries of the overall mate value of their potential mates. Here we explore the computational design of this mate preference integration process using a large sample of n = 14,487 people from 45 countries around the world. We combine this large cross-cultural sample with agent-based models to compare eight hypothesized models of human mating markets. Across cultures, people higher in mate value appear to experience greater power of choice on the mating market in that they set higher ideal standards, better fulfill their preferences in choice, and pair with higher mate value partners. Furthermore, we find that this cross-culturally universal pattern of mate choice is most consistent with a Euclidean model of mate preference integration.

Torun Lindholm ÖjmyrProfessor

About me

Research projects

Publications

Body odour disgust sensitivity is associated with xenophobia: evidence from nine countries across five continents

Love and affectionate touch toward romantic partners all over the world

Motivated errors in the face of facts

Effects of Eyewitnesses’ Primary Language in Investigative Interviews

Motivated reasoning in the face of clear evidence

Predicting Loyalty: Examining the Role of Social Identity and Leadership in an Extreme Operational Environment-A Swedish Case

Motivated Numeracy: The Role of Stimulus Ambiguity

Vocal characteristics of accuracy in eyewitness testimony

Modernization, collectivism, and gender equality predict love experiences in 45 countries

Who endorses group-based violence?

The Voice of Eyewitness Accuracy

Gender and arson: psychosocial, psychological, and somatic offender characteristics at the time of the crime

Trusting the Facts: The Role of Framing, News Media as a (Trusted) Source, and Opinion Resonance for Perceived Truth in Statistical Statements

Eyewitness accuracy and retrieval effort: Effects of time and repetition

Cognitive bias and attitude distortion of a priority decision

In the State We Trust? Attachment-Related Avoidance Is Related to Lower Trust, Both in Other People and in Welfare State Institutions

Body odor disgust sensitivity is associated with xenophobia: Evidence from 9 countries

Overcoming Knowledge Resistance: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies

Introduction: Toward Understanding Knowledge Resistance in High-Choice Information Environments

Knowledge Resistance in High-Choice Information Environments

A Review of the Effects of Valenced Odors on Face Perception and Evaluation

Affective Interpersonal Touch in Close Relationships

Judging the accuracy of eyewitness testimonies using retrieval effort cues

Sex differences in human mate preferences vary across sex ratios

Evaluating the Quality of Investigative Interviews Conducted After the Completion of a Training Program

Universality of the Triangular Theory of Love

Vi och dom

In the State we Trust? Attachment-Related Avoidance is Related to Lower Trust, Both in Other People and in Welfare State Institutions

Without a mask

A General Model of Dissonance Reduction

News media trust and its impact on media use

An Overprotective Nose? Implicit Bias Is Positively Related to Individual Differences in Body Odor Disgust Sensitivity

Sex Differences in Mate Preferences Across 45 Countries

Suicide Terrorism

Memory accuracy, suggestibility and credibility in investigative interviews with native and non-native eyewitnesses

Reasons for Facebook Usage

Contrasting Computational Models of Mate Preference Integration Across 45 Countries

Assortative mating and the evolution of desirability covariation

Language and eyewitness suggestibility

Body odor disgust sensitivity is associated with prejudice towards a fictive group of immigrants

Body Odor Disgust Sensitivity Predicts Moral Harshness Toward Moral Violations of Purity

Effort Cues Predict Eyewitness Accuracy

Effort in Memory Retrieval Predicts Accuracy in Eyewitness Testimonies

Reconsidering the Role of Procedures for Decision Acceptance

The Moderating Role of Body Odor Disgust Sensitivity in the Affective and Moral Reactivity to Purity Violations

Men’s and Women’s Self-Presentational Tactics Lead to Gender Biases in Manager Selection

Predicting Accuracy in Eyewitness Testimonies With Memory Retrieval Effort and Confidence

'He was...uhm...bald'

Attachment and Political Institutions – Attachment Style Predicts Lower Levels of Both Social and Institutional Trust

Effort in Memory Retrieval Predicts Accuracy in Eyewitness Testimonies

Contrasting Computational Models of Mate Preference Integration Across 45 Countries