Lars R Bergman Professor emeritus



Main research areas

The person-oriented approach to the study of individual development

The person-oriented approach has its roots in the holistic-interactionistic theoretical framework developed by David Magnusson. As far as possible, individuals are seen as coherent wholes and attention is paid to interactions between psychological, biological and social factors. Development is regarded as a process that is characterized more by transformation than by accumulation. This theoretical framework is emphasized within the new developmental science and it has led to a person-oriented approach where the information about an individual is viewed mainly as a 'Gestalt' (often operationalized by value profiles or patterns in a number of measured variables). The focus is on understanding individual development. From this framework, mainstream developmental research has been critically reviewed and it is argued that statistical methods currently in use often do not match the scientific problem.

Examples of my work in this area are found in refs. 9, 12, 14, 17, 28, 31, 34, and 35.

Methodological issues in developmental research

One area of methodological research concerns the development of new methods for studying profiles and structures from a process-oriented perspective; methods that often are labeled 'person-oriented'. These methods include cluster analysis-based methods and nonlinear dynamic systems models. Another research area is design, especially concerning the study of causality and making inferences at the individual level. With regard to causality, it is argued that a delineation should be made between individual and average causality, and with regard to making inferences at the individual level, it is argued that in many cases such inferences are unwarranted but still often erroneously made, based on group statistics like the correlation coefficient. A research area is also the study of relationships and measurement in longitudinal research and survey research.

Examples of my methodological work are found in refs. 4, 8, 10, 18, 22, 31, 33, 38, 52, and 55.

Empirical research about the adaptation process across the life-span

Empirical studies have been done in different areas, mostly in the field of developmental psychology, and frequently data have been used from the longitudinal research program Individual Development and Adaptation (IDA), of which I was the director 1996-2011. The studied areas include the long-term consequences of patterns of adjustment problems for adult adjustment, precursors and correlates of subjective well-being in midlife, and the study of how adult adjustment depends on high or low IQ at school age, and on the combination of IQ with other competence factors, like aspirations and perseverance.

Examples of my empirical work are found in refs. 1, 27, 29, 37, 39, 41, 42, 44, 46, 58, and 60.

Statistical packages for person-oriented analysis

Together with Bassam El-Khouri I have developed SLEIPNER – a computer package for person-oriented analysis that is widely used internationally. SLEIPNER is freeware and it is extensively treated in ref. 31. This book is a standard treatment of the person-oriented approach, in which both theoretical, methodological, and computational issues are presented. Andras Vargha, Karoli Gaspar University, Budapest, has developed a user-friendly general statistical package that also can perform many types of person-oriented analyses (ROPstat) to which I am a contributor (ref. 53).

Editor of the Journal for Person-Oriented Research

In 2015, Lars-Gunnar Lundh and I started a new journal, Journal for Person-Oriented Research (JPOR). The journal is dedicated to publishing person-oriented research, and we are the editors.

Selected publications 2000-2016

  1. Andersson, H., & Bergman, L.R. (2011). The role of task persistence in young adolescence for successful educational and occupational attainment in middle adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 47(4), 950-960.
  2. Andersson, H., Lovén, J., & Bergman, L.R. (2014). The importance of high competence in adolescence for career outcomes in midlife. Research in Human Development, 11(3), 204-216.
  3. Benzies, K.M., Wångby, M., & Bergman, L.R. (2008). Stability and change in health-related behaviors of midlife Swedish women. Health Care for Women International, 29, 997-1018.
  4. Bergman, L.R. (2000). The application of a person-oriented approach: Types and clusters. In L.R. Bergman, R.B. Cairns, L.-G. Nilsson, & L. Nystedt (Eds.), Developmental science and the holistic approach (Chapt. 9, pp. 137-154). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
  5. Bergman, L.R. (2000). A methodological perspective. In B. Smedby, I. Lundberg, & T.I.A. Sörensen (Eds.), Scientific evaluation of the Swedish Twin (pp. 124-128). Stockholm: FRN.
  6. Bergman, L.R. (2000). I-states as objects analysis (ISOA) - a way to generate sequences of categories for longitudinal (CFA) analysis. Psychologische Beiträge, 42, 337-346.
  7. Bergman, L.R. (2001). (Guest Ed.). Modern interactionism. In Special Issue of European Psychologist, 6, 151-152.
  8. Bergman, L.R. (2001). A person approach in research on adolescence: Some methodological challenges. Journal of Adolescent Research, 16, 28-53.
  9. Bergman, L.R. (2002). Studying processes: Some methodological considerations. In L. Pulkkinen & A. Caspi (Eds.), Path to successful development. Personality in the life course (pp. 177-199). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  10. Bergman, L.R. (2009). Mediation and causality at the individual level. Integrative Psychological & Behavioral Science, 43, 248-252.
  11. Bergman, L.R. (2010). The interpretation of single observational units´ measurements. In M. Carlson, H. Nyquist, & M. Villani (Eds.), Official statistics: Methodology and applications in honour of Daniel Thorburn (pp. 37-49).  Stockholm: University of Stockholm.
  12. Bergman, L.R. (2012). Advancing developmental science: Some challenges and obstacles. International Journal of Developmental Science, 6(1-2), 41-43.
  13. Bergman, L.R. (2015). Developmental systems theory and the person-oriented approach. Subtitle: Commentary on: An Interpretation of Part of Gilbert Gottlieb’s Legacy: Developmental Systems Theory Contra Developmental Behavior Genetics. International Journal of Developmental Science, 9(1), 15-18.
  14. Bergman, L.R. (2015). Challenges for person-oriented research: Some considerations based on Laursen´s article I don´t quite get it … : Personal experiences with the person-oriented approach. Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 1(3), 163-170.
  15. Bergman, L.R., & Andershed, A.-K. (2008). Predictors and outcomes of persistent and age-limited registered criminal behavior: A 30-year longitudinal study of a Swedish urban population. Aggressive Behavior, 34, 1-14.
  16. Bergman, L. R., Andershed, H. & Andershed, A-K (2009). Types and continua in developmental psychopathology: Problem behaviors in school and their relationship to later antisocial  behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 21(3), 975-992.
  17. Bergman, L.R., & Andersson, H. (2010). The person and the variable in developmental psychology. Journal of Psychology, 218(3), 155-165.
  18. Bergman, L.R., & Brage, R. (2008). Survey experiences and later survey attitudes, intents and behaviour. Journal of Official Statistics, 24(1), 99-113.
  19. Bergman, L.R., Cairns, R.B., Nilsson, L.-G., & Nystedt, L. (Eds.). (2000). Developmental science and the holistic approach. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
  20. Bergman, L.R., & Daukantaite, D. (2006). The importance of social circumstances for Swedish women’s subjective wellbeing. International Journal of Social Welfare, 15, 27-36.
  21. Bergman, L.R., & Daukantaite, D. (2007). Stability of typical patterns of subjective well-being in middle-aged Swedish women. Journal of Happiness Studies, 10(3), 293-311.
  22. Bergman, L.R., & El-Khouri, B.M. (2001). Developmental processes and the modern typological perspective. European Psychologist, 6, 177-186.
  23. Bergman, L.R., & El-Khouri, B.M. (2003). A person-oriented approach: Methods for today and methods for tomorrow. Special Issue of New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 101, 25-38.
  24. Bergman, L.R., & El-Khouri, B.M. (2005). The application of a person-oriented approach in longitudinal research on individual development. In ISSBD Newsletter, No. 2, Serial No. 48. Supplement to International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 10-13.
  25. Bergman, L.R., & Ferrer-Wreder, L. (Eds.). (2014). Special issue: The long-term development of Swedish adolescents with high IQ. Research in Human Development, 11(3), 161-246.
  26. Bergman, L.R., Ferrer-Wreder, L., & Zukauskiene, R. (2015). Career outcomes of adolescents with below average IQ: Who succeed against the odds? Intelligence, 52, 9-17.
  27. Bergman, L.R., Corovic, J., Ferrer-Wreder, L., & Modig, K. (2014). High IQ in early adolescence and career success in adulthood: Findings from a Swedish longitudinal study. Research in Human Development, 11(3), 165-185.
  28. Bergman, L.R., & Lundh, L.-G. (Eds.). (2015). The person-oriented approach: Roots and Roads to the Future. Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 1, Special issue 1-2, 1-109.
  29. Bergman, L.R., & Lundberg, O. (Eds.). (2006). Perspectives on determinants of social welfare. In Special Issue of International Journal of Social Welfare, 15(Suppl. 1), S1-S52.
  30. Bergman, L.R., & Magnusson, D. (2001). Person-centered research. In T. Cook & C. Ragin (Eds.), Logic of inquiry and research design. Vol. 8 of the International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (pp. 11333-11339). Oxford: Elsevier.
  31. Bergman, L.R., Magnusson, D., & El-Khouri, B.M. (2003). Studying individual development in an interindividual context: A person-oriented approach. Vol. 4  in the series Paths through life (D. Magnusson, Ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
  32. Bergman, L.R., & Nurmi, J-E. (2010).  Studying Patterns of Individual Development by I-States as Objects Analysis (ISOA). ISSBD Bulletin No. 1, Serial No. 57, 7-10.
  33. Bergman, L.R., Nurmi, J.-E., & von Eye, A.A. (2012). I-states-as-objects-analysis (ISOA): Extensions of an approach to studying short-term developmental processes by analyzing typical patterns. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 36, 237-246.
  34. Bergman, L.R., & Trost, K. (2006). The person-oriented versus the variable-oriented approach: Are they complementary, opposites, or exploring different worlds? Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 52, 601-632.
  35. Bergman, L.R., & Vargha, A. (2013). Matching method to problem: A developmental science perspective. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 10(1), 9-28.
  36. Bergman, L.R., von Eye, A., & Magnusson, D. (2006). Person-oriented research strategies in developmental psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & D.J. Cohen (Ed.), Developmental psychopathology. Vol. 1: Theory and method (Chapt. 21, pp. 850-888). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
  37. Daukantaite, D., & Bergman, L.R. (2005). Childhood roots of women’s subjective well-being. The role of optimism. European Psychologist, 10, 287-297.
  38. Grip, A., & Bergman, L.R. (2016). A nonlinear dynamic model applied to data with two times of measurement. Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 2, Special issue 1-2, 56-63.
  39. Kansi, J., Wichström, L., & Bergman, L.R. (2003). Eating problems and the self-concept: Results based on a representative sample of Norwegian adolescent girls. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 325-335.
  40. Kansi, J., Wichström, L., & Bergman, L.R. (2005). Eating problems and their risk factors: A 7-year longitudinal study of a population sample of Norwegian adolescent girls. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 521-531.
  41. Kiuru, N., Salmela-Aro, K., Nurmi, J.-E., Zettergren, P., & Bergman, L.R. (2012). Best friends in adolescence show similar educational careers in early adulthood. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 33(2), 102-111.
  42. Kokko, K., Bergman, L.R., & Pulkkinen, L. (2003). Child personality characteristics and selection into long-term unemployment in Finnish and Swedish longitudinal samples. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27, 134-144.
  43. Larsson, J.-O., Bergman, L.R., Earls, F., & Rydelius, P.-A. (2004). Behavioral profiles in 4-5 year-old children: Normal and pathological variants. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 35, 143-162.
  44. Lövdén, M., Bergman, L.R., Adolfsson, R., Lindenberger, U., & Nilsson, L.-G. (2005). Studying individual aging in an interindividual context: Typical paths of age-related, dementia-related, and mortality-related cognitive development in old age. Psychology and Aging, 20, 303-316.
  45. Mahoney, J.L., & Bergman L.R. (2002). Conceptual and methodological considerations in a developmental approach to the study of positive adaptation. Applied Developmental Psychology, 23, 195-217.
  46. Modig, K., & Bergman, L. R. (2012). Associations between intelligence in adolescence and indicators of health and health behaviors in midlife in a cohort of Swedish women. Intelligence, 40(2), 82-90.
  47. Modig-Wennerstad, K., Silventoinen, K., Batty, D., Tynelius, P., Bergman, L.R., & Rasmussen, F. (2008). Association between offspring intelligence and parental mortality: A population-based cohort study of one million Swedish men. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 62(8), 722-727.
  48. Modig-Wennerstad, K.M., Silventoinen, K., Tynelius, P., Bergman, L., Kaprio, J., & Rasmussen, F. (2010). Associations between IQ and cigarette smoking among Swedish male twins. Social Science & Medicine, 70(4), 575-581.
  49. Stattin, H., Kerr, M., & Bergman, L. R. (2010). On the utility of Moffit´s typology trajectories in long-term perspective. European Journal of Criminology, 7(6), 521-545.
  50. Vargha, A., & Bergman, L.R. (2012). A method to maximize the information of a continuous variable in relation to a dichotomous grouping variable: Cutpoint analysis. Hungarian Statistical Review, 90, Special number 16, 101-122.
  51. Vargha, A., Bergman, L.R., & Delaney, H.D. (2013). Interpretational problems of the partial correlation with nonnormally distributed variables. Quality & Quantity, 47(6), 3391-3402.
  52. Vargha, A., Bergman, L.R., & Takacs, S. (2016). Performing cluster analysis within a person-oriented context.: Some methods for evaluating the quality of cluster solutions. Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 2, Special issue 1-2, 78-86.
  53. Vargha, A., Torma, B., & Bergman, L.R. (2015). ROPstat: A general statistical package useful for conducting person-oriented analysis. Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 1(1-2), 87-98.
  54. von Eye, A., & Bergman, L.R. (2003). Research strategies in developmental psychopathology: Dimensional identity and the person-oriented approach. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 553-580.
  55. von Eye, A., & Bergman, L.R. (2009). Person-orientation in person-situation research.  Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 276-277.
  56. Wiedermann, W., Bergman, L.R., & von Eye, A., Eds. (2016). Development in methods for person-oriented analysis. Journal for Person-Oriented Research, 2, Special issue 1-2, 1-122.
  57. Wulff, C., Bergman, L.R., & Sverke, M. (2009). General mental ability and satisfaction with school and work: A longitudinal study from ages 13 to 48. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30, 398-408.
  58. Wångby, M., Bergman, L.R., & Magnusson, D. (1999). Development of adjustment problems in girls: What syndrome emerge? Child Development, 70, 678-699.
  59. Zettergren, P., & Bergman, L.R. (2014). Adolescents with high IQ and their adjustment in adolescence and midlife. Research in Human Development, 11(3), 186-203.
  60. Zettergren, P., Bergman, L.R., & Wångby, M. (2006). Girls’ stable peer status and their adulthood adjustment: A longitudinal study from age 10 to age 43. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30, 315-325.


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