Stockholms universitet

Erik GustafssonForskare

Om mig

I mitt arbete använder jag mig av numeriska modellberäkningar för att förstå och beskriva fysiska och biogeokemiska processer i Östersjön. Min bakgrund är huvudsakligen inom fysisk oceanografi, men min forskning handlar framför allt om transporter av näringsämnen, kol och alkalinitet mellan land, hav och luft samt omsättningen av dessa ämnen i Östersjön. Ett övergripande syfte med min forskning är att klargöra hur Östersjön har förändrats historiskt och vilka förändringar man kan vänta sig i framtiden beroende på koldioxidutsläpp, klimatförändringar och övergödning.

Forskning

Mina forskningsintressen:

  • Kopplingen mellan fysiska och biogeokemiska processer i Östersjön
  • Historiska och framtida förändringar av kol- och närsaltomsättning, syreförhållanden i djupvattnet samt havsförsurning
  • Omsättning av järn, svavel och fosfor i Östersjöns sediment, inverkan på alkalinitet och pH i vattenmassan

Forskningsprojekt

Publikationer

I urval från Stockholms universitets publikationsdatabas

  • Causes and consequences of acidification in the Baltic Sea: implications for monitoring and management

    2023. Erik Gustafsson (et al.). Scientific Reports 13

    Artikel

    Increasing atmospheric CO2 drives ocean acidification globally. In coastal seas, acidification trends can however be either counteracted or enhanced by other processes. Ecosystem effects of acidification are so far small in the Baltic Sea, but changes should be anticipated unless CO2 emissions are curbed. Possible future acidification trends in the Baltic Sea, conditional on CO2 emissions, climate change, and changes in productivity, can be assessed by means of model simulations. There are uncertainties regarding potential consequences for marine organisms, partly because of difficulties to assign critical thresholds, but also because of knowledge gaps regarding species’ capacity to adapt. Increased temporal and spatial monitoring of inorganic carbon system parameters would allow a better understanding of current acidification trends and also improve the capacity to predict possible future changes. An additional benefit is that such measurements also provide quantitative estimates of productivity. The technology required for precise measurements of the inorganic carbon system is readily available today. Regularly updated status evaluations of acidification, and the inorganic carbon system in general, would support management when assessing climate change effects, eutrophication or characteristics of the pelagic habitats. This would, however, have to be based on a spatially and temporally sufficient monitoring program.

    Läs mer om Causes and consequences of acidification in the Baltic Sea
  • OMAI – Assessing acidification in the Baltic Sea, monitoring and scientific basis

    2021. Erik Gustafsson (et al.).

    Rapport

    In marine and brackish waters, the acidity of the water is mainly controlled by the inorganic carbon system. Anthropogenic CO2 emissions will – unless reduced – gradually move the Baltic Sea towards a state where acidification becomes harmful for some organisms. The effect is caused by the uptake of CO2 in the water, but can be further enhanced by other climate effects, such as increased water temperature and a possible freshening of the sea water. This is expected to lead to changes in species composition, both directly (competitive advantages/disadvantages) and indirectly (altered food availability), potentially influencing ecosystem functioning.

    Coastal seas, such as the Baltic Sea, are highly influenced by their catchment areas, which means that pH dynamics is generally more complex than in the open ocean. The reason is that pH, in addition to the response to increasing CO2, is also influenced by changes in hydrology and changes in the supply of carbon and nutrients. High-productive waters typically experience larger seasonal pH variations than low-productive waters, with higher pH peaks in spring/summer and also a more pronounced pH decline in winter. The comparatively weak long-term acidification trend can be masked behind much larger short-term variations. Furthermore, since acidification is a slow process, organisms can to varying degrees adapt to the changes.

    Model simulations performed as a part of the OMAI (Operational Marine Acidification Indicator) project indicate that the expected acidification in the Baltic Sea generally follows the same trajectory as the open oceans, with a pH decline of almost 0.4 by year 2100 and a further decline of 0.3 by year 2300 in the worst-case scenario. Due to large regional differences in the area, the annual mean pH in the Bothnian Bay might decline from present-day 7.8 to 7.4 by year 2100, whereas in the Gotland Sea and Southern Kattegat mean pH could decline from present-day 8.1 to 7.7. The degree of eutrophication has a comparatively small effect on the annual mean pH, but on the other hand a considerable impact on the seasonal amplitude and thus minimum and maximum values.

    The complex situation in the Baltic Sea gives a strong incentive to improve the temporal and spatial coverage of acidification monitoring. This would broaden the understanding of current acidification trends and also improve the capacity to predict future changes. An indicator for acidification in the Baltic Sea is currently under development. Monitoring of parameters relevant for acidification, i.e., the inorganic carbon system parameters, would as an added value also provide an additional handle in terms of assessing changes in primary production and eutrophication trends.

    Läs mer om OMAI – Assessing acidification in the Baltic Sea, monitoring and scientific basis
  • Future acidification of the Baltic Sea - A sensitivity study

    2020. Erik Gustafsson, Bo G. Gustafsson. Journal of Marine Systems 211

    Artikel

    Future acidification of coastal seas will depend not only on the development of atmospheric CO2 partial pressure (pCO(2)), but also on changes in the catchment areas, exchange with the adjacent ocean, and internal cycling of carbon and nutrients. Here we use a coupled physical-biogeochemical Baltic Sea model to quantify the sensitivity of pH to changes both in external forcing and internal processes. The experiments include changes in runoff, supply of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and total alkalinity (A(T)), nutrient loads, exchange between the Baltic and North Seas, and atmospheric pCO(2). We furthermore address the potential different future developments of runoff and river loads in boreal and continental catchments, respectively. Changes in atmospheric pCO(2) exert the strongest control on future pH according to our calculations. This CO2-induced acidification could be further enhanced in the case of desalination of the Baltic Sea, although increased concentrations of A(T) in the river runoff due to increased weathering to some extent could counteract acidification. Reduced nutrient loads and productivity would reduce the average annual surface water pH but at the same time slightly increase wintertime surface water pH (the annual pH minimum). The response time of surface water pH to sudden changes in atmospheric pCO(2) is approximately one month, whereas response times to changes in e.g. runoff and A(T)/DIC loads are more related to residence times of water and salt (> 30 years). It seems unlikely that the projected future increase in atmospheric pCO(2) and associated pH reduction could be fully counteracted by any of the other processes addressed in our experiments.

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  • The meagre future of benthic fauna in a coastal sea-Benthic responses to recovery from eutrophication in a changing climate

    2020. Eva Ehrnsten (et al.). Global Change Biology 26 (4), 2235-2250

    Artikel

    Nutrient loading and climate change affect coastal ecosystems worldwide. Unravelling the combined effects of these pressures on benthic macrofauna is essential for understanding the future functioning of coastal ecosystems, as it is an important component linking the benthic and pelagic realms. In this study, we extended an existing model of benthic macrofauna coupled with a physical-biogeochemical model of the Baltic Sea to study the combined effects of changing nutrient loads and climate on biomass and metabolism of benthic macrofauna historically and in scenarios for the future. Based on a statistical comparison with a large validation dataset of measured biomasses, the model showed good or reasonable performance across the different basins and depth strata in the model area. In scenarios with decreasing nutrient loads according to the Baltic Sea Action Plan but also with continued recent loads (mean loads 2012-2014), overall macrofaunal biomass and carbon processing were projected to decrease significantly by the end of the century despite improved oxygen conditions at the seafloor. Climate change led to intensified pelagic recycling of primary production and reduced export of particulate organic carbon to the seafloor with negative effects on macrofaunal biomass. In the high nutrient load scenario, representing the highest recorded historical loads, climate change counteracted the effects of increased productivity leading to a hyperbolic response: biomass and carbon processing increased up to mid-21st century but then decreased, giving almost no net change by the end of the 21st century compared to present. The study shows that benthic responses to environmental change are nonlinear and partly decoupled from pelagic responses and indicates that benthic-pelagic coupling might be weaker in a warmer and less eutrophic sea.

    Läs mer om The meagre future of benthic fauna in a coastal sea-Benthic responses to recovery from eutrophication in a changing climate
  • Impact of natural re-oxygenation on the sediment dynamics of manganese, iron and phosphorus in a euxinic Baltic Sea basin

    2019. Martijn Hermans (et al.). Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 246, 174-196

    Artikel

    The Baltic Sea is characterized by the largest area of hypoxic (oxygen (O2) < 2 mg L−1) bottom waters in the world’s ocean induced by human activities. Natural ventilation of these O2-depleted waters largely depends on episodic Major Baltic Inflows from the adjacent North Sea. In 2014 and 2015, two such inflows led to a strong rise in O2 and decline in phosphate (HPO42−) in waters below 125 m depth in the Eastern Gotland Basin. This provided the opportunity to assess the impact of such re-oxygenation events on the cycles of manganese (Mn), iron (Fe) and phosphorus (P) in the sediment for the first time. We demonstrate that the re-oxygenation induced the activity of sulphur (S)-oxidising bacteria, known as Beggiatoaceae in the surface sediment where a thin oxic and suboxic layer developed. At the two deepest sites, strong enrichments of total Mn and to a lesser extent Fe oxides and P were observed in this surface layer. A combination of sequential sediment extractions and synchrotron-based X-ray spectroscopy revealed evidence for the abundant presence of P-bearing rhodochrosite and Mn(II) phosphates. In contrast to what is typically assumed, the formation of Fe oxides in the surface sediment was limited. We attribute this lack of Fe oxide formation to the high flux of reductants, such as sulphide, from deeper sediments which allows Fe(II) in the form of FeS to be preserved and restricts the penetration of O2 into the sediment. We estimate that enhanced P sequestration in surface sediments accounts for only ∼5% of water column HPO42− removal in the Eastern Gotland Basin linked to the recent inflows. The remaining HPO42− was transported to adjacent areas in the Baltic Sea. Our results highlight that the benthic O2 demand arising from the accumulation of organic-rich sediments over several decades, the legacy of hypoxia, has major implications for the biogeochemical response of euxinic basins to re-oxygenation. In particular, P sequestration in the sediment in association with Fe oxides is limited. This implies that artificial ventilation projects that aim at removing water column HPO42− and thereby improving water quality in the Baltic Sea will likely not have the desired effect.

    Läs mer om Impact of natural re-oxygenation on the sediment dynamics of manganese, iron and phosphorus in a euxinic Baltic Sea basin
  • Future Carbon Emission From Boreal and Permafrost Lakes Are Sensitive to Catchment Organic Carbon Loads

    2019. Tina K. Bayer (et al.). Journal of Geophysical Research - Biogeosciences 124 (7), 1827-1848

    Artikel

    Carbon storage, processing, and transport in freshwater systems are important components of the global carbon cycle and sensitive to global change. However, in large-scale modeling this part of the boundless carbon cycle is often lacking or represented in a very simplified way. A new process-oriented lake biogeochemical model is used for investigating impacts of changes in atmospheric CO2 concentrations and organic carbon loading from the catchment on future greenhouse gas emissions from lakes across two boreal to subarctic regions (Northern Sweden and Alaska). Aquatic processes represented include carbon, oxygen, phytoplankton, and nutrient dynamics leading to CO2 and CH4 exchanges with the atmosphere. The model is running inside a macroscale hydrological model and may be easily implemented into a land surface scheme. Model evaluation demonstrates the validity in terms of average concentration of nutrients, algal biomass, and organic and inorganic carbon. Cumulative annual emissions of CH4 and CO2, as well as pathways of CH4 emissions, also compare well to observations. Model calculations imply that lake emissions of CH4 may increase by up to 45% under the Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 scenario until 2100, and CO2 emissions may increase by up to 80% in Alaska. Increasing organic carbon loading to the lakes resulted in a linear response in CO2 and CH4 emissions across both regions, but increases in CO2 emissions from subarctic lakes in Sweden were lower than for southern boreal lakes, probably due to the higher importance of imported vegetation-generated inorganic carbon for CO2 emission from subarctic lakes.

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  • Remineralization rate of terrestrial DOC as inferred from CO2 supersaturated coastal waters

    2019. Filippa Fransner (et al.). Biogeosciences Discussions 16 (3), 863-879

    Artikel

    Coastal seas receive large amounts of terrestrially derived organic carbon (OC). The fate of this carbon, and its impact on the marine environment, is however poorly understood. Here we combine underway CO2 partial pressure (pCO2) measurements with coupled 3D hydrodynamical-biogeochemical modelling to investigate whether remineralization of terrestrial dissolved organic carbon (tDOC) can explain CO2 supersaturated surface waters in the Gulf of Bothnia, a subarctic estuary. We find that a substantial remineralization of tDOC, and that a strong tDOC induced light attenuation dampening the primary production, is required to reproduce the observed CO2 supersaturated waters in the nearshore areas. A removal rate of tDOC of the order of one year, estimated in a previous modelling study in the same area, gives a good agreement between modelled and observed pCO2. The remineralization rate is on the same order as bacterial degradation rates calculated from published incubation experiments, suggesting that this remineralization could be caused by bacterial degradation. Furthermore, the observed high pCO2 values during the ice covered season argues against photochemical degradation as the main removal mechanism. All of the remineralized tDOC is outgassed to the atmosphere in the model, turning the northernmost part of the Gulf of Bothnia to a source of atmospheric CO2.

    Läs mer om Remineralization rate of terrestrial DOC as inferred from CO2 supersaturated coastal waters
  • Sedimentary alkalinity generation and long-term alkalinity development in the Baltic Sea

    2019. Erik Gustafsson (et al.). Biogeosciences 16 (2), 437-456

    Artikel

    Enhanced release of alkalinity from the seafloor, principally driven by anaerobic degradation of organic matter under low-oxygen conditions and associated secondary redox reactions, can increase the carbon dioxide (CO2) buffering capacity of seawater and therefore oceanic CO2 uptake. The Baltic Sea has undergone severe changes in oxygenation state and total alkalinity (TA) over the past decades. The link between these concurrent changes has not yet been investigated in detail. A recent system-wide TA budget constructed for the past 50 years using BALTSEM, a coupled physical-biogeochemical model for the whole Baltic Sea area, revealed an unknown TA source. Here we use BALTSEM in combination with observational data and one-dimensional reactive transport modelling of sedimentary processes in the Fårö Deep, a deep Baltic Sea basin, to test whether sulfate reduction coupled to iron (Fe) sulfide burial can explain the missing TA source in the Baltic Proper. We calculated that this burial can account for 26% of the missing source in this basin, with the remaining TA possibly originating from unknown river inputs or submarine groundwater discharge. We also show that temporal variability in the input of Fe to the sediments since the 1970s drives changes in sulfur burial in the Fårö Deep, suggesting that Fe availability is the ultimate limiting factor for TA generation under anoxic conditions. The implementation of projected climate change and two nutrient load scenarios for the 21st century in BALTSEM shows that reducing nutrient loads will improve deep water oxygen conditions, but at the expense of lower surface water TA concentrations, CO2 buffering capacities and faster acidification. When these changes additionally lead to a decrease in Fe inputs to the sediment of the deep basins, anaerobic TA generation will be reduced even further, thus exacerbating acidification. This work highlights that Fe dynamics play a key role in the release of TA from sediments where Fe sulfide formation is limited by Fe availability, as exemplified for the Baltic Sea. Moreover, it demonstrates that burial of Fe sulfides should be included in TA budgets of low oxygen basins.

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  • Assessment of Uncertainties in Scenario Simulations of Biogeochemical Cycles in the Baltic Sea

    2019. H. E. Markus Meier (et al.). Frontiers in Marine Science 6

    Artikel

    Following earlier regional assessment studies, such as the Assessment of Climate Change for the Baltic Sea Basin and the North Sea Region Climate Change Assessment, knowledge acquired from available literature about future scenario simulations of biogeochemical cycles in the Baltic Sea and their uncertainties is assessed. The identification and reduction of uncertainties of scenario simulations are issues for marine management. For instance, it is important to know whether nutrient load abatement will meet its objectives of restored water quality status in future climate or whether additional measures are required. However, uncertainties are large and their sources need to be understood to draw conclusions about the effectiveness of measures. The assessment of sources of uncertainties in projections of biogeochemical cycles based on authors' own expert judgment suggests that the biggest uncertainties are caused by (1) unknown current and future bioavailable nutrient loads from land and atmosphere, (2) the experimental setup (including the spin up strategy), (3) differences between the projections of global and regional climate models, in particular, with respect to the global mean sea level rise and regional water cycle, (4) differing model-specific responses of the simulated biogeochemical cycles to long-term changes in external nutrient loads and climate of the Baltic Sea region, and (5) unknown future greenhouse gas emissions. Regular assessments of the models' skill (or quality compared to observations) for the Baltic Sea region and the spread in scenario simulations (differences among projected changes) as well as improvement of dynamical downscaling methods are recommended.

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  • Assessment of Eutrophication Abatement Scenarios for the Baltic Sea by Multi-Model Ensemble Simulations

    2018. H. E. Markus Meier (et al.). Frontiers in Marine Science 5

    Artikel

    To assess the impact of the implementation of the Baltic Sea Action Plan (BSAP) on the future environmental status of the Baltic Sea, available uncoordinated multi-model ensemble simulations for the Baltic Sea region for the twenty-first century were analyzed. 

    The scenario simulations were driven by regionalized global general circulation model (GCM) data using several regional climate system models and forced by various future greenhouse gas emission and air- and river-borne nutrient load scenarios following either reference conditions or the BSAP. To estimate uncertainties in projections, the largest ever multi-model ensemble for the Baltic Sea comprising 58 transient simulations for the twenty-first century was assessed. Data from already existing simulations from different projects including regionalized GCM simulations of the third and fourth assessment reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change based on the corresponding Coupled Model Intercomparison Projects, CMIP3 and CMIP5, were collected.

    Various strategies to weigh the ensemble members were tested and the results for ensemble mean changes between future and present climates are shown to be robust with respect to the chosen metric. Although (1) the model simulations during the historical period are of different quality and (2) the assumptions on nutrient load levels during present and future periods differ between models considerably, the ensemble mean changes in biogeochemical variables in the Baltic proper with respect to nutrient load reductions are similar between the entire ensemble and a subset consisting only of the most reliable simulations.

    Despite the large spread in projections, the implementation of the BSAP will lead to a significant improvement of the environmental status of the Baltic Sea according to both weighted and unweighted ensembles. The results emphasize the need for investigating ensembles with many members and rigorous assessments of models’ performance.

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  • Long-Term and Seasonal Trends in Estuarine and Coastal Carbonate Systems

    2018. Jacob Carstensen (et al.). Global Biogeochemical Cycles 32 (3), 497-513

    Artikel

    Coastal pH and total alkalinity are regulated by a diverse range of local processes superimposed on global trends of warming and ocean acidification, yet few studies have investigated the relative importance of different processes for coastal acidification. We describe long-term (1972-2016) and seasonal trends in the carbonate system of three Danish coastal systems demonstrating that hydrological modification, changes in nutrient inputs from land, and presence/absence of calcifiers can drastically alter carbonate chemistry. Total alkalinity was mainly governed by conservative mixing of freshwater (0.73-5.17mmolkg(-1)) with outer boundary concentrations (similar to 2-2.4mmolkg(-1)), modulated seasonally and spatially (similar to 0.1-0.2mmolkg(-1)) by calcifiers. Nitrate assimilation by primary production, denitrification, and sulfate reduction increased total alkalinity by almost 0.6mmolkg(-1) in the most eutrophic system during a period without calcifiers. Trends in pH ranged from -0.0088year(-1) to 0.021year(-1), the more extreme of these mainly driven by salinity changes in a sluice-controlled lagoon. Temperature increased 0.05 degrees Cyr(-1) across all three systems, which directly accounted for a pH decrease of 0.0008year(-1). Accounting for mixing, salinity, and temperature effects on dissociation and solubility constants, the resulting pH decline (0.0040year(-1)) was about twice the ocean trend, emphasizing the effect of nutrient management on primary production and coastal acidification. Coastal pCO(2) increased similar to 4 times more rapidly than ocean rates, enhancing CO2 emissions to the atmosphere. Indeed, coastal systems undergo more drastic changes than the ocean and coastal acidification trends are substantially enhanced from nutrient reductions to address coastal eutrophication.

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  • Non-Redfieldian Dynamics Explain Seasonal pCO2 Drawdown in the Gulf of Bothnia

    2018. Filippa Fransner (et al.). Journal of Geophysical Research - Oceans 123 (1), 166-188

    Artikel

    High inputs of nutrients and organic matter make coastal seas places of intense air‐sea CO2 exchange. Due to their complexity, the role of coastal seas in the global air‐sea CO2 exchange is, however, still uncertain. Here, we investigate the role of phytoplankton stoichiometric flexibility and extracellular DOC production for the seasonal nutrient and CO2 partial pressure (pCO2) dynamics in the Gulf of Bothnia, Northern Baltic Sea. A 3‐D ocean biogeochemical‐physical model with variable phytoplankton stoichiometry is for the first time implemented in the area and validated against observations. By simulating non‐Redfieldian internal phytoplankton stoichiometry, and a relatively large production of extracellular dissolved organic carbon (DOC), the model adequately reproduces observed seasonal cycles in macronutrients and pCO2. The uptake of atmospheric CO2 is underestimated by 50% if instead using the Redfield ratio to determine the carbon assimilation, as in other Baltic Sea models currently in use. The model further suggests, based on the observed drawdown of pCO2, that observational estimates of organic carbon production in the Gulf of Bothnia, derived with the method, may be heavily underestimated. We conclude that stoichiometric variability and uncoupling of carbon and nutrient assimilation have to be considered in order to better understand the carbon cycle in coastal seas.

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  • Policy Brief TRIACID: Acidification in Nordic Waters

    2018. Jacob Carstensen (et al.).

    Rapport

    Recent studies on marine life show that the anthropogenic increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration can have negative impacts on growth and survival of groups of marine life such as corals and other calcifying organisms.

    Increased CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, and hence in the oceans, lead to decreasing pH or increasing acidification, a process known as ocean acidification (OA). During the last century, the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere has risen from around 280 ppm to 400 ppm; this has led to a pH decrease in the oceans of 0.1. OA currently takes place at a rate corresponding to approximately -0.02 pH unit per decade and an increase in CO2 at around 2 ppm per year. The projections for atmospheric CO2 concentration is an increase to around 1000 ppm at the end of the century, which will lower pH in the oceans by 0.3-0.4. Although this may appear relatively small, a decrease in pH of 0.1 corresponds to an increase in acidity (“free” protons) of 25%, and 0.3-0.4 corresponds to an increase of 200-250%.

    Coastal systems experience changes in pH over time exceeding those of the ocean by several orders of magnitude, but the field is poorly studied, and the spatial variation is large. The Baltic Sea is no exception to this. pH changes in the Baltic Sea are tightly coupled to nutrient input, alkalinity (AT) of freshwater sources in addition to increased CO2 levels and warming. Acidification trends vary substantially among coastal systems and time of year, but have been reported up to 10 times faster than OA. 

    The TRIACID project has mapped acidification trends in the Baltic Sea during the past 40 years, in different regions, and identified areas with a general lack of data. The project has described spatial variation and trends  in pH status, and the main drivers of changing pH have been identified. Given the spatial variation, the data gaps, and all the different drivers a detailed projection of the development is complicated but since we expect increasing CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, rising temperatures and decreasing nutrient input, the acidification trend will continue or accelerate in most of the region.

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  • Key processes in the coupled carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycling of the Baltic Sea

    2017. Erik Gustafsson (et al.). Biogeochemistry 134 (3), 301-317

    Artikel

    In this study we examine pools of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) in the Baltic Sea, both simulated and reconstructed from observations. We further quantify key fluxes in the C, N, and P cycling. Our calculations include pelagic reservoirs as well as the storage in the active sediment layer, which allows a complete coverage of the overall C, N, and P cycling on a system-scale. A striking property of C versus N and P cycling is that while the external supplies of total N and P (TN and TP) are largely balanced by internal removal processes, the total carbon (TC) supply is mainly compensated by a net export out of the system. In other words, external inputs of TN and TP are, in contrast to TC, rather efficiently filtered within the Baltic Sea. Further, there is a net export of TN and TP out of the system, but a net import of dissolved inorganic N and P (DIN and DIP). There is on the contrary a net export of both the organic and inorganic fractions of TC. While the pelagic pools of TC and TP are dominated by inorganic compounds, TN largely consists of organic N because allochthonous organic N is poorly degradable. There are however large basin-wise differences in C, N, and P elemental ratios as well as in inorganic versus organic fractions. These differences reflect both the differing ratios in external loads and differing oxygen conditions determining the redox-dependent fluxes of DIN and DIP.

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  • Sea-air exchange patterns along the central and outer East Siberian Arctic Shelf as inferred from continuous CO2, stable isotope, and bulk chemistry measurements

    2017. Christoph Humborg (et al.). Global Biogeochemical Cycles 31 (7), 1173-1191

    Artikel

    This large-scale quasi-synoptic study gives a comprehensive picture of sea-air CO2 fluxes during the melt season in the central and outer Laptev Sea (LS) and East Siberian Sea (ESS). During a 7 week cruise we compiled a continuous record of both surface water and air CO2 concentrations, in total 76,892 measurements. Overall, the central and outer parts of the ESAS constituted a sink for CO2, and we estimate a median uptake of 9.4 g C m(-2) yr(-1) or 6.6 Tg C yr(-1). Our results suggest that while the ESS and shelf break waters adjacent to the LS and ESS are net autotrophic systems, the LS is a net heterotrophic system. CO2 sea-air fluxes for the LS were 4.7 g C m(-2) yr(-1), and for the ESS we estimate an uptake of 7.2 g C m(-2) yr(-1). Isotopic composition of dissolved inorganic carbon (delta C-13(DIC) and delta C-13(CO2)) in the water column indicates that the LS is depleted in delta C-13(DIC) compared to the Arctic Ocean (ArcO) and ESS with an offset of 0.5% which can be explained by mixing of delta C-13(DIC)-depleted riverine waters and 4.0 Tg yr(-1) respiration of OCter; only a minor part (0.72 Tg yr(-1)) of this respired OCter is exchanged with the atmosphere. Property-mixing diagrams of total organic carbon and isotope ratio (delta C-13(SPE-DOC)) versus dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration diagram indicate conservative and nonconservative mixing in the LS and ESS, respectively. We suggest land-derived particulate organic carbon from coastal erosion as an additional significant source for the depleted delta C-13(DIC).

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  • Eutrophication Increases Phytoplankton Methylmercury Concentrations in a Coastal Sea-A Baltic Sea Case Study

    2016. Anne. L. Soerensen (et al.). Environmental Science and Technology 50 (21), 11787-11796

    Artikel

    Eutrophication is expanding worldwide, but its implication for production and bioaccumulation of neurotoxic monomethylmercury (MeHg) is unknown. We developed a mercury (Hg) biogeochemical model for the Baltic Sea and used it to investigate the impact of eutrophication on phytoplankton MeHg concentrations. For model evaluation, we measured total methylated Hg (MeHgT) in the Baltic Sea and found low concentrations (39 +/- 16 fM) above the halocline and high concentrations in anoxic waters (1249 +/- 369 fM). To close the Baltic Sea MeHgT budget, we inferred an average normoxic water column HgII methylation rate constant of 2 x 10-4 d-1. We used the model to compare Baltic Seas present-day (2005-2014) eutrophic state to an oligo/mesotrophic scenario. Eutrophication increases primary production and export of organic matter and associated Hg to the sediment effectively removing Hg from the active biogeochemical cycle; this results in a 27% lower present-day water column Hg reservoir. However, increase in organic matter production and remineralization stimulates microbial Hg methylation resulting in a seasonal increase in both water and phytoplankton MeHg reservoirs above the halocline. Previous studies of systems dominated by external MeHg sources or benthic production found eutrophication to decrease MeHg levels in plankton. This Baltic Sea study shows that in systems with MeHg production in the normoxic water column eutrophication can increase phytoplankton MeHg content.

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  • Tracing terrestrial DOC in the Baltic Sea - a 3-D model study

    2016. Filippa Fransner (et al.). Global Biogeochemical Cycles 30 (2), 134-148

    Artikel

    The fate of terrestrial organic matter brought to the coastal seas by rivers, and its role in the global carbon cycle, are still not very well known. Here the degradation rate of terrestrial dissolved organic carbon (DOCter) is studied in the Baltic Sea, a subarctic semi-enclosed sea, by releasing it as a tracer in a 3-D circulation model and applying linear decay constants. A good agreement with available observational data is obtained by parameterizing the degradation in two rather different ways; one by applying a decay time on the order of 10 years to the whole pool of DOCter, and one by dividing the DOCter into one refractory pool and one pool subject to a decay time on the order of 1 year. The choice of parameterization has a significant effect on where in the Baltic Sea the removal takes place, which can be of importance when modeling the full carbon cycle and the CO2 exchange with the atmosphere. In both cases the biogeochemical decay operates on time scales less than the water residence time. Therefore only a minor fraction of the DOCter reaches the North Sea, whereas approximately 80% is removed by internal sinks within the Baltic Sea. This further implies that DOCter mineralization is an important link in land-sea-atmosphere cycling of carbon in coastal- and shelf seas that are heavily influenced by riverine DOC.

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  • Modelling the C-13 and C-12 isotopes of inorganic and organic carbon in the Baltic Sea

    2015. Erik Gustafsson (et al.). Journal of Marine Systems 148, 122-130

    Artikel

    In this study, C-12 and C-13 contents of all carbon containing state variables (dissolved inorganic and organic carbon, detrital carbon, and the carbon content of autotrophs and heterotrophs) have for the first time been explicitly included in a coupled physical-biogeochemical Baltic Sea model. Different processes in the carbon cycling have distinct fractionation values, resulting in specific isotopic fingerprints. Thus, in addition to simulating concentrations of different tracers, our new model formulation improves the possibility to constrain the rates of processes such as CO2 assimilation, mineralization, and air-sea exchange. We demonstrate that phytoplankton production and respiration, and the related air-sea CO2 fluxes, are to a large degree controlling the isotopic composition of organic and inorganic carbon in the system. The isotopic composition is further, but to a lesser extent, influenced by river loads and deep water inflows as well as transformation of terrestrial organic carbon within the system. Changes in the isotopic composition over the 20th century have been dominated by two processes the preferential release of C-12 to the atmosphere in association with fossil fuel burning, and the eutrophication of the Baltic Sea related to increased nutrient loads under the second half of the century.

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  • The air-water CO2 exchange of a coastal sea – a sensitivity study on factors that influence the absorption and outgassing of CO2 in the Baltic Sea

    2015. Erik Gustafsson, Anders Omstedt, Bo G. Gustafsson. Journal of Geophysical Research - Oceans 120 (8), 5342-5357

    Artikel

    In this study, the BALTSEM model is used to estimate how air-water CO2 fluxes in the Baltic Sea respond to parameterizations of organic alkalinity (Aorg), gas transfer, and phytoplankton growth, and further to changes in river loads. The forcing data include the most complete compilation of Baltic river loads for dissolved inorganic and organic carbon (DIC and DOC) and total alkalinity (TA). In addition, we apply the most recent estimates of internal TA generation in the system. Our results clearly demonstrate how air-water CO2 fluxes of a coastal sea depend on river loads of carbon, TA, and nutrients as well the freshwater import itself. Long-term changes in DIC loads are shown to be compensated by corresponding changes in air-water CO2 exchange. By adding Aorg, a discrepancy in the carbonate system calculations was removed, and the simulated net CO2 absorption of the system decreased by 11%. A new parameterization for cyanobacteria growth significantly improved the seasonal development of pCO2 in the central Baltic Sea, although the net effect on CO2 fluxes was below 5%. By applying either a linear, quadratic, or cubic wind speed dependence for gas transfer, the long-term net CO2 exchange was adjusted by less than 5%. There is no clear indication that any one of these parameterizations provides a more accurate estimate of CO2 fluxes than the other two. Our findings are applicable in other coastal areas that are heavily influenced by river loads of TA, DIC, and DOC.

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  • A novel modeling tool with multi-stressor functionality for organic contaminant transport and fate in the Baltic Sea

    2014. Emma Undeman, Erik Gustafsson, Bo G. Gustafsson. Science of the Total Environment 497, 382-391

    Artikel

    The coupled physical-biogeochemical model BALTSEM, previously used to assess nutrient/carbon cycles and eutrophication in the Baltic Sea, has been expanded to include algorithms for calculations of organic contaminant environmental transport and fate. This novel model version (BALTSEM-POP) is evaluated for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) in Baltic Sea surface water and sediment. Modeled dissolved concentrations are usually within a factor of 2-4 of observed concentrations, however with larger deviations for furans. Calculated concentrations in particulate organic matter are less accurate (within factors of 1-700), likely due to errors in estimated pelagic biomass, particulate matter-water partitioning, and large natural variability in field data. Concentrations in sediments are usually predicted within a factor of 6. The good performance of the model illustrates its usefulness for exploration of contaminant fate in response to variations in nutrient input and climatic conditions in the Baltic Sea marine environment.

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  • Carbon cycling in the Baltic Sea - The fate of allochthonous organic carbon and its impact on air-sea CO2 exchange

    2014. Erik Gustafsson (et al.). Journal of Marine Systems 129, 289-302

    Artikel

    A coupled physical-biogeochemical model (BALTSEM) is used to estimate carbon fluxes in the Baltic Sea over the 1980-2006 period. Budget calculations for organic carbon indicate that of the total allochthonous organic carbon (TOCT) supplied to the system, on average 56% is mineralized, 36% is exported out of the system, and the remainder is buried. River discharge is the main source of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) to the Baltic Sea. However, model results indicate that in the Gulf of Bothnia (northern Baltic Sea), the contribution to the DIC stock by TOCT mineralization is of the same order as direct river input of DIC In the Kattegat and Danish Straits (southwestern Baltic Sea) on the other hand, net uptake of atmospheric CO2 comprises the major DIC source. Despite large variations within the system, with net outgassing from some sub-basins and net absorption in others, the Baltic Sea as a whole was estimated to be a net sink for atmospheric CO2. Mineralization of allochthonous dissolved organic carbon (DOCT) influences air-sea CO2 exchange. A sensitivity study indicates that depending on the labile fraction of DOCT, the contribution from CO2 absorption to total external DIC sources can amount to 10-25%.

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  • Control of the mid-summer net community production and nitrogen fixation in the central Baltic Sea

    2014. Bernd Schneider, Erik Gustafsson, Bernd Sadkowiak. Journal of Marine Systems 136, 1-9

    Artikel

    Automated measurements of the surface CO2 partial pressure, pCO2, were performed since 2003 on a cargo ship along a transect between Helsinki in the Gulf of Finland and Lübeck/Gdynia in the southwest of the Baltic Sea. The temporal and spatial resolution of the measurements amounted to 2–4 days and about 2 nautical miles, respectively. Based on temperature and salinity records and on the mean alkalinity, the total CO2 concentrations, CT, were calculated from the mean pCO2 in the northeastern Gotland Sea. The CT data were used to establish a CO2 mass balance for the period from mid-June to the beginning of August in 2005, 2008, 2009 and 2011. Taking into account the air–sea CO2 gas exchange, the mass balance yielded the net organic matter (Corg) production which is fuelled by nitrogen fixation at this time of the year. Several production events were detected with rates up to 8 μmol-C L− 1 d− 1. The production rates were not related to temperature, but showed a distinct correlation with the rate of the temperature increase. This led to the conclusion that the exposure of nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria to irradiance is the dominating control for the Corg production. Therefore, we suggest using the ratio of irradiance to the mixed layer depth as a variable for the parameterization of nitrogen fixation in biogeochemical models. The Corg production and thus the nitrogen fixation rates remained almost constant as long as continuous rising temperatures indicated favorable irradiation conditions. A limitation of the rates by phosphate or any other factor could not be detected. Based on the C/N ratio of particulate organic matter during a cyanobacteria bloom, the Corg production was used to estimate the mid-summer nitrogen fixation. The values varied from 102 mmol m− 2 to 214 mmol m− 2 (mean: 138 mmol m− 2) for the different years and did not show any correlation with the phosphate excess after the spring nitrate depletion.

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  • External total alkalinity loads versus internal generation

    2014. Erik Gustafsson (et al.). Global Biogeochemical Cycles 28 (11), 1358-1370

    Artikel

    In this study we first present updated riverine total alkalinity (TA) loads to the various Baltic Sea sub-basins, based on monthly measurements in 82 of the major rivers that represent 85% of the total runoff. Simulations in the coupled physical-biogeochemical BALTSEM (BAltic sea Long-Term large Scale Eutrophication Model) model show that these river loads together with North Sea water inflows are not sufficient to reproduce observed TA concentrations in the system, demonstrating the large influence from internal sources. Budget calculations indicate that the required internal TA generation must be similar to river loads in magnitude. The nonriverine source in the system amounts to about 2.4mmolm(-2) d(-1) on average. We argue here that the majority of this source is related to denitrification together with unresolved sediment processes such as burial of reduced sulfur and/or silicate weathering. This hypothesis is supported by studies on sediment processes on a global scale and also by data from sediment cores in the Baltic Sea. In a model simulation with all internal TA sources and sinks switched on, the net absorption of atmospheric CO2 increased by 0.78mol C m(-2) yr(-1) compared to a simulation where TA was treated as a passive tracer. Our results clearly illustrate how pelagic TA sources together with anaerobic mineralization in coastal sediments generate a significant carbon sink along the aquatic continuum, mitigating CO2 evasions from coastal and estuarine systems.

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  • Future changes in the Baltic Sea acid-base (pH) and oxygen balances

    2012. Anders Omstedt (et al.). Tellus. Series B, Chemical and physical meteorology 64, 19586

    Artikel

    Possible future changes in Baltic Sea acid-base (pH) and oxygen balances were studied using a catchment-sea coupled model system and numerical experiments based on meteorological and hydrological forcing datasets and scenarios. By using objective statistical methods, climate runs for present climate conditions were examined and evaluated using Baltic Sea modelling. The results indicate that increased nutrient loads will not inhibit future Baltic Sea acidification; instead, the seasonal pH cycle will be amplified by increased biological production and mineralization. All examined scenarios indicate future acidification of the whole Baltic Sea that is insensitive to the chosen global climate model. The main factor controlling the direction and magnitude of future pH changes is atmospheric CO2 concentration (i.e. emissions). Climate change and land-derived changes (e. g. nutrient loads) affect acidification mainly by altering the seasonal cycle and deep-water conditions. Apart from decreasing pH, we also project a decreased saturation state of calcium carbonate, decreased respiration index and increasing hypoxic area - all factors that will threaten the marine ecosystem. We demonstrate that substantial reductions in fossil-fuel burning are needed to minimise the coming pH decrease and that substantial reductions in nutrient loads are needed to reduce the coming increase in hypoxic and anoxic waters.

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